Research purpose: This article reports older residents’ perceptions of effective relationships.

Motivation for the study: Effective relationships protect against loneliness and depression and contribute to well-being. The facility was identified by a social worker as a showcase for effective relationships, but it was not clear what these consist of.

Research approach, design and method: The World Café, a qualitative, participatory action research method, was applied to an economically deprived, urban facility caring for older people in Gauteng, South Africa. Three positively framed questions elicited perceptions from participants (nine men, ten women, aged 65–89). Visual and textual data were obtained and thematically analysed until saturation had been achieved. Themes were then subjected to deductive direct content analysis in terms of Self-Interactional Group Theory (SIGT).

Main findings: Older residents perceive care managers as friendly and trustworthy and co-residents as caring. Care managers were seen as flexible, empathetic and congruent leaders and they confirmed residents. Relationships between residents were parallel-defined with relational qualities such as empathy and unconditional acceptance. Residents’ needs for privacy were honoured and they felt confirmed. Group dynamics were underpinned by caring and a stimulating environment provided opportunities for engagement.

Practical/managerial implications: Relationships between managers and consumers are facilitated by flexibility, empathy, congruence and unconditional acceptance. Supportive group dynamics develop when people confirm and accept one another. A stimulating environment that encourages continuous and close interpersonal contact contributes to effective relationships.

Contribution/value-add: Effective relationships should be understood on different levels.

In contrast, people with less successful relationships reported feeling distanced, discontented, blamed and disconnected (Smith-Acuña, 2011; Vorster et al., 2013). According to Fromm (1985), the experience of disconnectedness is a source of intense anxiety, which Vorster et al. (2013) found to contribute to psychological discomfort. Although this study focused on the relational perceptions of older people in an institutional residential setting, it is also relevant to organisations in which members are continuously interacting with one another and with those in leadership positions. Effective relationships have been found to be directly related to older people’s quality of life (Brownie & Horstmanshof, 2012; Van Biljon & Roos, 2012). Effective relationships are therefore important for mental health, particularly in an institutional setting, because people spend a large part of their lives in an organised setting, albeit in different positions and in different roles (Kitching, Roos & Ferreira, 2012; Smith-Acuña, 2011). It is thus helpful to determine what people regard as effective relationships in an institutional setting.

For the purposes of this study, relationships are regarded as the continuous, reciprocal verbal and non-verbal interactions between people (Hargie, 2011; Smith-Acuña, 2011; Suchman, 2006; Watzlawick, Bavelas & Jackson, 2011). These interactions consist of subjective experiences (impact) on an intrapersonal level and reactions on an inter-individual level. The interactions take place in a particular interpersonal context, embedded in broader environments (Roos, in press; Vorster et al., 2013). The inter-individual level of the interaction consists of relational qualities that may be described as effective or ineffective based on the subjective evaluation of the impact as well as the degree to which participants are able to address their needs in the relationships (Chigeza, De Wet, Roos & Vorster, 2013; Chigeza & Roos, 2011; Vorster et al., 2013; Roos & Malan, 2012; Roos, in press). Ineffective relational qualities are observed when people report psychological discomfort, which is related to their interactional style, and the impact thereof on other people, which results in their needs not being met (Vorster et al., 2013). An interactional style is the patterned nature of a person’s interactions with other people, which may or may not be context-specific (Vorster, 2011).

Research on relationships in an institutional residential setting was conducted in relation to co-residents and care managers. In relation to co-residents, relationships are promoted by proximity, regular contact and a variety of interactions within the institution as well as externally (Brownie & Horstmanshof, 2012; Roos & Malan, 2012; Roos & Nel, 2010; Van Biljon & Roos, 2012). Furthermore, older persons who had regular contact with others and the opportunity to engage in a variety of interactions experience subjectively less loneliness (Roos & Malan, 2012; Taube et al., 2013). In relation to care managers, residents emphasised their flexibility as well as their care and helpfulness (Murphy, O’Shea & Cooney, 2007). The ethos of care within a residential facility may be one of the most significant factors to have an impact on a resident’s quality of life (Murphy et al., 2007).

Following the systems theory, and specifically the patterned nature of systems, information about what is occurring on one part of the system can give an indication of what is happening on the other part of the system (Smith-Acuña, 2011). Consequently, by gaining an understanding of effective relationships from the perspective of the recipients of the interaction it is possible to make deductions about the care managers’ or co-residents’ interactional style. The reciprocal and continuous nature of interactions makes it impossible to focus on all their components at the same time (Smith-Acuña, 2011; Vorster et al., 2013). In the present study, effective relationships were therefore studied from the perspective of the residents.

In the next section, the research method will be discussed, followed by the findings and a discussion of the findings, linked to relevant literature. Recommendations and limitations will be followed by a conclusion.

Data were gathered by means of the World Café method (Brown, 2002; Schieffer, Isaacs & Gyllenpalm, 2004). The World Café method requires participants to form small groups consisting of five to seven people. In this instance, participants were randomly assigned a number from one to three and asked to arrange themselves according to their number. Researchers trained in the World Café method were allocated to each group and facilitated group discussions. One of the participants at each table, identified by the group, was asked to give feedback to the bigger group at the end of the data gathering session, with the support of the researcher and the rest of the group. The smaller groups were seated around a table with a large, A2 sheet of paper, refreshments and multi-coloured writing materials to create a congenial atmosphere (Brown, 2002). This offers an accessible research method of obtaining data from large groups of people by means of discussions based on a specific research question (Schieffer et al., 2004). The unique structure of the World Café method used for the study gave all participants an opportunity to be involved in data gathering, and the manner of their involvement stimulated ideas about effective relationships.

Visual data were obtained from images and symbols the participants drew on the paper and textual data from group discussions, which were audio-taped and transcribed verbatim. Every participant had an opportunity to add their views to the paper. The discussion on a specific question by a specific group typically lasted about 20 minutes, and the group then rotated to the next table to meet the host or hostess and to participate in the question at that table (Ritch & Brennen, 2010). In the present research, taking into account some of the participants’ difficulty in moving around, the groups remained seated at their tables whilst the older person and the researcher who acted as facilitators moved to the next table with the same question. This process was repeated until all participants had been given the opportunity to respond to all the questions. For the present research, the sheets of paper were pinned to the wall, and the three group hosts or hostesses communicated what the participants had contributed to the different questions. A group discussion followed, during which some of the participants clarified their input and complemented the information with further examples. This part of the data gathering was regarded as member checking.

Each group was provided with one of the positively framed questions and was asked to give input visually and verbally. The assumption underlying positively framed questions is that effective relationships are possible in every group, institution or organisation and that people have the knowledge, wisdom and creativity to relate optimally to one another (Schieffer et al., 2004). For the present study, it was decided to focus on effective relationships and not to engage in problems or challenges. In formulating the questions, it was decided to follow Kitching et al. (2012), who had conducted research into effective interactions between different groups in a school community. Kitching (2010) had obtained rich data when asking participants to describe when they felt engaged and excited in their interactions with others. It was decided to include a similar question in this study as part of the data gathering as the first question. The second question, which focused on a visual representation of interactions, was motivated by the use of visual data as an external narrative to facilitate discussions (Roos, 2008). The last question was motivated by Gilbert’s (2006) assumption that people construct the future on the basis of their current experiences.

The following three questions were discussed in the three separate groups.

Group 1: Think about your relationships in this residential facility. What are the meaningful moments when you felt really excited and involved with people?

Group 2: How can you illustrate positive relationships in this residential facility visually by means of a metaphor, a slogan or an image?

Group 3: If your grandchildren were residents of this residential facility, what type of relationships would you like them to form here?

Textual data were gathered by assembling the responses of all the participants during group discussions as well as their written responses. Two levels of analysis were applied to obtain the findings: initially all data (visual and textual) were subjected to inductive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2013) and triangulated with the specific question asked. Following this, the themes that were obtained were subjected to direct context analysis using SIGT as the theoretical framework (Hsui-Fang & Shannon, 2005). The inter-individual and group level analysis proposed by SIGT was used to describe the definition of the relationship, relational qualities and needs (inter-individual level) and group norms and dynamics (group level) (Roos, in press; Vorster et al., 2013). As anticipated, the positively framed questions elicited positive emotions and perceptions, which served to provide insight into the inter-individual and group level. This in turn provided insight into effective relationships.

Definition of the relationship: The residents appeared to accept care managers taking the lead. One gave an example of this: ‘Yes, we know that if we have a problem, they [management] will solve it for you – if you cannot solve it yourself’ (Participant 7, male). Although residents accept the leadership position of care managers, they appreciate the person-centred approach in which interactions take place. ‘The big thing of management is that they involve people. It is not a top-down approach. They listen to what people want. They are on the ground’ (Participant 2, male).

Relational qualities of care managers in relation to residents: Two other residents (participants) who had previously stayed in other residential care facilities compared the two facilities and highlighted the importance of flexibility in managing the care setting:

‘I participated in a small group [in the previous care facility], but it had to stop at eight o’clock when they closed everything. It felt like a jail, but not here’. (Participant 17, male)

In addition: ‘The people are very morbid there. Here is more freedom. You can come and go as you please’ (Participant 8, female).

The participants experienced the interpersonal style of care managers as congruent: ‘What really stands out for me is the care, the authentic care of managers. The people give’ (Participant 14, female). Residents expressed that they were confirmed as worthy people. Residents mentioned that care managers recognised their contribution as valuable; they listened to the residents and helped them to deal with their problems. One of the participants said: ‘Yes, management listens [confirmation] to the input of ordinary people – their problems and what they struggle with – and they give attention to it’ (Participant 2, male).

Definition of the relationship: Relationships amongst fellow residents were defined as parallel or equal. Participants expressed their equal status as follows: ‘Here, with us, the youngest 65 and the oldest, 89. There is no age difference’ (Participant 1, male).

Relational qualities of fellow residents: Residents gave and received empathy and reported their appreciation of this kindly interaction. One of the participants compared her present experience of empathy with that in the facility where she had previously resided:

‘You know, I was previously at another place. My child died in an accident and they did not even say that they are sorry for me. Here people have sympathy with one another’. (Participant 5, female)

Other participants also mentioned their experience of empathy: ‘We listen to one another’s problems and we share in one another’s hardships’ [Participant 13, female]. ‘I also like to listen when people speak to me and try to understand what is worrying them and then I also like to pray for people’ [Participant 3, female]. She added:

‘I think that my strong point is that I can listen. I can observe. I am sensitive to the needs of other people and I can interpret body language’. (Participant 3, female)

In this case, the differences between people, particularly in terms of religious affiliation, were dealt with by acceptance of one another. According to one participant: ‘We respect one another’s denominations’ (Participant 15, female). Another said: ‘Yes, we accept one another, despite [the fact] that we are all different’ (Participant 14, female).

In this interpersonal context, residents expressed their need for privacy effectively. This is evident from the following responses: ‘If you do not want to talk, then you close your door; but if you want to talk then the people will come to you’ (Participant 6, female). Another participant confirmed this: ‘If you are unhappy, then you just ask. We do not have to withhold, we can just say [what we want]’ (Participant 2, male).

Residents also satisfied their need for confirmation. This was indicated by the way in which they recognised one another’s value and importance. One older woman said: ‘I always say that I am an outsider, but then they say: no you are not an outsider’ (Participant 19, female). Another participant described the efforts residents make to celebrate one another’s birthdays: ‘For everyone who celebrates their birthday, there is a card that is being signed and placed on their table on their birthday.’ Two participants described the importance of birthdays: ‘It is an important day for the people who celebrate their birthday and it is their day’ (Participant 1, male). And: ‘Yes, they feel important, [because] somebody is thinking of them’ (Participant 16, male). The participants also praised one another for their efforts to mark the event:

‘She deals with everything if there is a birthday. We give the card to her and it is on the person’s table who celebrates his or her birthday the next morning, with a chocolate. She deals with everything’. (Participant 1, male).

‘[There is] love for one another, care for one another, listening to one another’s problems and sharing in difficult times. Everyone reaches out to one another and is friendly with one another. They make jokes’. (Participant 13, female)

And: ‘If someone stays away for a long time, then we begin to ask: where is that person? Why is she gone for such a long time?’ (Participant 8, male). The norm guided the helping behaviour described by some of the participants: ‘I like to help people, I get pleasure out by helping people, especially in (this residential facility), if you see people battling’ (Participant 8, male). And: ‘If they cannot do something, help them, show them that you care about them’ (Participant 7, male).

In concluding the research exercise, participants summarised what they regarded as the most important relational qualities for effective relationships: clarity of self-presentation (trust, unreserved trust, trustworthiness, honest communication and open-handedness), unconditional regard (acceptance of one another despite differences and unconditional love), empathy and affirmation (respect), and congruency (sincerity). The outcomes of effective relationships for them were to give and receive physical, emotional and spiritual support (physical support, supportive contact, spiritual support).

The subjective experience of the relationship with fellow residents was being cared for. The relationship between residents was defined as parallel and residents alternated in taking the roles of leaders and followers. The relational qualities that were described in relation to fellow residents were giving and receiving of empathy and unconditional acceptance. Residents perceived that they could express their needs for privacy and they felt confirmed by other residents. Interaction was motivated by their needs for physical, emotional and spiritual support as well as for privacy and affirmation.

The group dynamics that developed spontaneously in this setting were guided by care as a group norm. The interpersonal context in which the interactions between residents and care managers and fellow residents took place was embedded in a stimulating environment. The stimulating environment provided opportunities for close interpersonal contact and various opportunities for engaging with people inside the institution as well as externally.

In linking the findings with literature, the discussion will focus first on residents’ relationship with their care managers and then on their relationship with fellow residents. The findings confirmed, similar to what Rockwell (2012) found, that reciprocal caring and warm relationships with care managers and co-residents are important for older people’s socio-emotional care. A management style of leading in a flexible, empathetic and congruent manner contributes to an emotionally safe interpersonal context (Vorster et al., 2013). Flexibility enables managers to adopt a meta-reflective position and view the interaction from a second order level (Vorster et al., 2013). Empathy is regarded as a relational quality that facilitates effective interactions between people because they are able to put themselves in the position of the other (Howe, 2013). Managers who lead in a congruent manner co-construct a predictable interpersonal context in which the subjective impact is trust. Trust is identified by Fiske (2000) as one of four core social motives in human interactions. In an interpersonal context in which managers display these relational qualities, and when people are confirmed as worthy, they tend to make their needs known. According to systems theory, establishing patterns of effective interpersonal interactions can create something that is much more than the sum of the individual behaviour in the system (Smith-Acuña, 2011).

In regard to fellow residents, relationships were described as equal. According to Vorster et al. (2013), people in parallel-defined relations can move between positions of following and leading depending on context. This variation in defining relationships also indicates a tendency towards flexibility because the same definition of the relationship, irrespective of the context, is not applied rigidly. Moreover, empathy, unconditional acceptance and confirmation of people are all relational qualities that contribute to effective relationships. In this study, cooperation was observed as a result of successful interpersonal and inter-group contact (Fiske, 2000). Interpersonal interactions in this setting took place in a stimulating environment in which the residents engaged actively with one another. Chiao, Weng and Botticello (2011) found in their study that the involvement of older people in an interactive and socially stimulating environment promotes psychological well-being and reduces symptoms of depression.

The group dynamics in this group provided spontaneous social support (Vinogradov & Yalom, 1989). In a group such as this, altruism and group cohesion are observed, with group members supporting one another physically and emotionally. Care is the group norm guiding the behaviour of members. These group dynamics and interpersonal interactions can limit depression in residential institutions caring for older people (Hsu, 2012). Despite evidence of group support and cohesion, the subjective experience and individual needs should always be recognised. This is confirmed by one of the male participants (Participant 3, male), who remarked at the end of the inquiry in reference to the ice-breaking exercise at the beginning of the data gathering session: ‘Maybe we are not on 10 yet and we have work to do’.

Residents in settings are limited in terms of the availability and variety of relationships. Effective relational qualities can best develop in interpersonal contexts that people perceive as safe. Managers who display effective relational qualities in interpersonal contexts contribute to the development of group dynamics that are underpinned by norms of care. In these groups, individuals are supported and the group provides opportunities for effective interaction.

The World Café method, as a participatory action-based research design, facilitated the identification of the effective relational qualities in a group context. The use of the World Café method can help make participants aware of the quality and potential of relationships in their immediate environment. It is recommended that institutions set out to identify effective relational qualities that can be nurtured to promote effective group dynamics instead of focusing chiefly on problems or challenges. Sensitising managers about the importance of their relationships with residents and showing how they can contribute to the construction of safe interpersonal contexts can help residents to express their needs effectively and will, it is hoped, be able to change a complaint discourse, which often manifests as the ineffective expression of needs (A. De Wet, clinical psychologist, personal communication, May 12, 2012).

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2013). Successful qualitative research. A practical guide for beginners. London, England: SAGE Publications.

Brown, J. (2002). The World Cafe: A resource guide for hosting conversations that matter. Mill Valley, CA: Whole Systems Associates.

Brownie, S., & Horstmanshof, L. (2012). Creating the conditions for self-fulfilment for aged care residents. Nursing Ethics, 19(6), 777–786. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0969733011423292

Chiao, C., Weng, L., & Botticello, A.L. (2011). Social participation reduces depressive symptoms among older adults: An 18-year longitudinal analysis in Taiwan. BMC Public Health, 11(1), 292–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-292

Chigeza, S., De Wet, A., Roos., V., & Vorster, C. (2013). African migrants’ experiences of Xenophobic violence in South Africa: A relational approach. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 23(3), 139–143.

Chigeza, S., & Roos, V. (2011). The resilience of illegal African migrants in South Africa: A relational perspective. Australian Community Psychologist Special Resilience, 23(2), 121–134.

Clissett, P. (2008). Evaluating qualitative research. Journal of Orthopaedic Nursing, 12, 99–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joon.2008.07.009

Creswell, J.W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research design. Choosing among five approaches. (2nd edn.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Ellingson, L.L. (2009). Engaging crystallization in qualitative research: An introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Fiske, S.T. (2000). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination at the seam between the centuries: Evolution, culture, mind, and brain. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 299–322. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(200005/06)30:3%3C299::AID-EJSP2%3E3.0.CO;2-F

Fromm, E. (1985). The art of loving. London, England: Thorsons, Harper Collins Publishers.

Gilbert, D. (2006). Stumbling on happiness. New York, NY: Random House, Inc.

Grenade, L., & Boldy, D. (2008). Social isolation and loneliness among older people: Issues and future challenges in community and residential settings. Australian Health Review, 32(3), 468–478. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/AH080468

Hargie, O. (2011). Skilled interpersonal communication. Research, theory and practice. (5th edn.). London, England: Routledge.

Hogan, P.C. (2011). What literature teachers us about emotion. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511976773

Howe, D. (2013). Empathy. What it is and why it matters. Hampshire, England: Palgrave Macmillan.

Hsu, H. (2012). Group-based trajectories of depressive symptoms and the predictors in the older population. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 27, 854–862. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/gps.2796

Hsui-Fang, H. & Shannon, S.E (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277–1288. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687

Hycner, R. & Jacobs, L. (1995). The healing relationship in Gestalt therapy: A dialogic/self-psychological approach. Highland, NY: The Gestalt Journal Press.

Kitching, A.E. (2010). Conceptualising a relationship-focused approach to the co-construction of enabling school communities. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa.

Kitching, A.E., Roos, V., & Ferreira, R. (2012). Towards an understanding of nurturing and restraining relationships in school communities. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 22(2), 187–200.

Lalive d’Epinay, C., Cavalli, S., & Spini, D. (2003). The death of a loved one: Impact on health and relationships in very old age. Omega. Journal of Death and Dying, 47(3), 265–284. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/3GMV-PGL9-UD68-NEKW

Lazarus, R.S. (2006). Emotions and interpersonal relationships: toward a person-centred conceptualisation of emotions and coping. Journal of Personality, 74(1), 9–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00368.x

Murphy, K., O’Shea, E., Cooney, A. (2007). Quality of life for older people living in long-stay settings in Ireland. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 16(11), 2167–2177. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2702.2006.01865.x

Neuman, W.L. (2000). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. (4th edn.). Boston, MA: Allan & Bacon. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/PROC-660-JJ8.30.1

Reason, P., & Bradbury, H. (2006). Introduction: Inquiry and participation in search of a world worthy of human aspiration. In P. Reason, & H. Bradbury (Eds.), Handbook of Action Research (pp. 1–14). London, England: SAGE Publications.

Ritch, E.L., & Brennen, C. (2010). Using World Café and drama to explore older people’s experience of financial products and services. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 34(4), 405–411. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1470-6431.2010.00881.x

Rockwell, J. (2012). From person-centred to relational care: Expanding the focus in residential care facilities. Journal of Gerontology Social Work, 55(3), 233–248. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01634372.2011.639438

Roos, V. (2008). The Mmogo-method: Discovering symbolic community interactions. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 18(4), 659–668.

Roos, V. (in press). Self-Interactional Group Theory (SIGT) to explain the relational/interactional nature of intergenerational relations. In V. Roos (Ed.), Self-constructed visual research towards understanding relational experiences: The Mmogo-method®. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.

Roos, V., & De Jager, L. (2010). Die subjektiewe ervaring van eensaamheid by ouer dames – Toepassing van die Mmogo-metode® [The subjective experiences of loneliness among older women – Application of the Mmogo-method®]. Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe, 50(1), 15–30.

Roos, V., & Klopper, H. (2010). Older persons’ experiences of loneliness: A South African perspective. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 20(2), 281–292.

Roos, V., & Malan, L. (2012). The role of context and the interpersonal experiences of loneliness among older people in a residential care facility. Global Health Action, 5.

Roos, V., & Nel. C. (2010). The meaning of friendships among older women in a residential care facility. Die Maatskaplike Werk Navorser-Praktisyn/The Social Work/Practitioner, 22(2), 241–258.

Ryff, C.D., & Singer, B. (1998). The contours of positive human health. Psychological inquiry, 9(1), 1–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0901_1

Schieffer, A., Isaacs, D., & Gyllenpalm, B. (2004). The World Cafe: Part one. World Business Academy, 18(8), 1–16.

Shabangu, T.R., & Roos, V. (2012). An exploration of the experiences of older persons in an economically deprived residential care facility. Social Work Researcher/Practitioner, 24(2), 210–228.

Smith-Acuña, S. (2011). System theory in action: Application to individual, couple and family therapy. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Suchman, A.L. (2006). A new theoretical foundation for relationship-centred care. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 21(1), 40–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1497.2006.00308.x

Taube, E., Kristensson, J., Midlov, P., Holst, G., & Jakobsson, Ul. (2013). Loneliness among older people: Results from the Swedish national study on aging and care – Blekinge. The Open Geriatric Medicine Journal, 6, 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874827901306010001

Tracy, S.J. (2010). Qualitative quality: Eight ‘big tent’ criteria for excellent qualitative research. Qualitative Inquiry, 16(10), 837–851. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1077800410383121

Van Biljon, L. & Roos, V. (2012). The construction of quality of life of older people. Unpublished manuscript, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa.

Victor, C.R., Scambler, S.J., & Bond, J. (2009). Growing older series: The social world of older people - Understanding loneliness and social Isolation in later life. New York, NY: Open University Press.

Vinogradov, S., & Yalom, I.D. (1989). Group psychotherapy. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.

Vorster, C. (2011). Impact: The story of interactional therapy. (1st edn.). Pretoria, South Africa: Satori Publishers.

Vorster, C., Roos, V., & Beukes, M. (2013). A psycho-diagnostic tool for psychotherapy: Interactional Pattern Analysis. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 23(3), 163–169.

Watzlawick, P., Bavelas, J.B., & Jackson, D.D. (2011). A study of interactional patterns, pathologies and paradoxes: Pragmatics of human communication. New York, NY: Norton & Company.